HOW COOKING AND DINING WERE DONE IN ANCIENT ROME
From the outset, it’s important to note that we don’t have an objective picture of ancient Roman gastronomy—most writings or images on the subject are distorted by the subjectivity of partisan writers, moralists of the time, or satirists, none of whom were culinary experts. Figures like Athenaeus, Petronius, Plutarch, Seneca, and Pliny can be cited, but the gastronomic references in their works cannot be taken as irrefutable evidence of those times for the simple reason that none of them were professional gastronomes—so we’re dealing with profane, purely subjective descriptions, not professional insights.
The only work capable of offering an objective view of gastronomy in the Roman Empire is that of M. Gavius Apicius—who also happens to be the author of the oldest surviving culinary book in Europe. While there is no doubt about the work itself, the author’s identity remains unclear due to the existence of several notable figures with the same name throughout Roman history.
The earliest Apicius lived around 100 BCE, while the younger Apicius—believed to be the most likely author of De Re Coquinaria—was a M. Gavius Apicius who lived during the reign of Augustus and Emperor Tiberius, between 80 BCE and 40 CE. Both Apicii, however, had reputations as fine gastronomes, which complicates identifying the true author.
Even regarding the contents of Apicius’s books, things aren’t much clearer. There is a theory that many of the recipes presented were not actually his, but were named in his honor. This would support another theory that Apicius wasn’t the actual author of the surviving cookbooks but rather a compiler or patron who facilitated their creation, thus earning the honor of having dishes named after him.
Regardless, Apicius was a true gastronome, either creating special recipes himself or collecting those circulating at the time, thereby building a veritable gastronomic school and shaping the tastes of the era. A legend even suggests that he spent his entire fortune on food and culinary experiments, and when he realized his wealth was nearly depleted, he took his own life, unable to bear the thought of possibly dying of hunger. However, as expected, there is no historical proof to confirm this legend.
What is certain is that M. Gavius Apicius lived during the Imperial Roman period, the most fascinating era for gastronomy, especially because Rome had reached its peak, with no signs of decline yet. Many figures of the time took culinary art seriously. Contrary to popular belief, opulence and luxury were seen as signs of superficiality, while frugality was considered a virtue.
In addition to the dishes bearing Apicius’s name, the book also contains recipes named after other famous figures of the time, many of whom lived long after the second Apicius, leading historians to believe that the book was gradually supplemented with recipes from various individuals over time.
Today, the ten different books attributed to Apicius are a cornerstone of culinary history. Their importance is amplified by the fact that different authors who contributed to these works drew heavily from the ancient Greek gastronomic culture, which the Romans adopted as "spoils of war." It’s fascinating to consider the trajectory: Greece laid the foundation for Roman gastronomy, which in turn laid the groundwork for Italian cuisine, which has had a significant influence on French cuisine, the ultimate model of gastronomy.
Even today, despite some recipes that might seem unusual for our times or despite certain long-gone sauces like garum, Apicius’s recipes remain alive in Europe’s culinary heritage. As expected, Roman traditions are deeply embedded in Southern European cuisine. What’s surprising, though, is that traces of Apicius’s influence can still be found in Northern European culinary traditions: in Britain, Scandinavia, Sweden, and Denmark, Apician culinary principles and rules still thrive, most likely brought by conquerors, navigators, or migrating peoples from the south, later adapted to the local climate and soil.
It’s no exaggeration to say that Apicius’s work is not only the oldest surviving cookbook in the world, but it also forms the foundation of European gastronomy. At least until the 17th century, prior to La Varenne, all culinary literature and practice were deeply influenced by Apicius’s work.
Some Apician Principles:
Apicius recommended cooking meat or vegetables in liquamen, which could be defined as broth, sauce, or even something like court-bouillon—historians have not reached a definitive consensus on the meaning of this term.
Garum is another Apician term, generally understood to mean fish sauce, most likely made from a small fish called garus. This sauce was one of the expensive ingredients of ancient Rome—today, it is somewhat analogous to antipasti (anchovy, sardine, lobster pastes, etc.).
The combination of fish with meat was common for Apicius.
Spices were used sparingly, primarily because they were expensive and imported from distant places like Africa or Asia.
Apicius excelled in preparing vegetables and vegetarian dishes (such as cabbage and asparagus) and in utilizing parts of vegetables that are often discarded today. He believed that when prepared correctly, these parts represented a valuable nutritional resource and were truly delicious. Books three and five are entirely dedicated to vegetables.
Apicius’s instructions don’t typically specify time, effort, or preparation stages. They are often vague, simply listing the ingredients, likely in the order they appear in the recipe (indicating that Apicius was more a gastronome than a writer).
There are many principles regarding food preservation (how to store meat, oysters, fish, fruit, olives, etc.), which makes sense given the era’s lack of refrigeration.
There are also specific instructions for preparing sausages and various minced meat specialties.
Source: Apicius Cookery and Dining in Imperial Rome (A Bibliography, Critical Review, and Translation of the Ancient Book known as Apicius De Re Coquinaria), edited and translated by Joseph Dommers Vehling, Dover Publications, New York, 1977.
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